Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to In the last section, we learned about how sex chromosome-linked genes, hormones, and the environment can drive sex differences in the brain and behavior. But how do…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to In the previous section, we explored the biological mechanisms of sex determination, highlighting the diverse genetic and environmental factors involved across various species. We also examined how…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to In the previous section, we explored hypotheses explaining the evolution and conservation of sexual reproduction and sexual dimorphism across eukaryotes, highlighting their impacts on male and female…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to Have you ever wondered why most species around you reproduce sexually, and why having two distinct sexes is so common? What are the benefits of sexual reproduction, and…
Figure 11.1 Dendritic spines vary with estrogen level. Image credit (ROI box and estrogen labels added): Brandt, N., Löffler, T., Fester, L. et al. Sex-specific features of spine densities in the hippocampus. Sci Rep 10, 11405 (2020). CC BY 4.0 Chapter…
The Physiological Actions Implementing Movement – Contraction of Muscles Effector skeletal muscles move limbs and body parts in desired directions by pulling in a coordinated manner, typically in conjunction with antagonistic partners pulling in opposite directions. To accomplish the pulling,…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to In this section, we will explore the contributions of UMN systems to voluntary movements. Progressively, we will discuss ascending signals providing critical decision-making information to UMN areas,…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to Neuroscientists divide the motor system into lower levels and upper levels for clinical purposes. The implementation of final contractions occurs at lower, output levels, while the organization of…
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you should be able to Disagreement among experts about what constitutes a single muscle leaves a lack of consensus about how many there are. Skeletal muscles can exist in a variety of…
Figure 10.1 Image credit: Thinking Simone Biles: By Agência Brasil Fotografias – EUA levam ouro na ginástica artística feminina; Brasil fica em 8º lugar, CC BY 2.0; Flipping Simone Biles: By Agência Brasil Fotografias – EUA levam ouro na ginástica artística feminina;…