Learning Objectives Plants, algae, and certain bacteria (cyanobacteria and green and purple sulfur bacteria) are among the organisms capable of performing photosynthesis (Figure ). Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are called photoautotrophs (literally, “self-feeders using light”). Other organisms,…
Learning Objectives Not only do plants produce sugars through photosynthesis, but they also break down these sugars to generate usable energy in the form of ATP through aerobic cellular respiration. Glucose begins its breakdown outside of the mitochondria in a metabolic…
Learning Objectives Understanding photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration relies on the fundamentals of energy. Energy is defined as the ability to do work, and there are several types of energy (Figure ). Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Examples include a ball rolling down…
Gnetales are the least familiar group of gymnosperms. There are 112 species in the world (Christenhusz and Byng, 2016), being divided into three main subgroups: Welwitschia (1 species), Gnetales (43 species), and Ephedrales (68 species). Welwitschia is an odd-looking plant adapted to extremely arid…
There is only one living species of ginkgo, Ginkgo billoba, which is native to China but is cultivated across the world in temperate regions. The fossil record shows that this group was once diverse and had a widespread distribution in the Northern Hemisphere…
Cycads are easy to recognize because they look like a palm tree. However, they bear large cones rather than fruits. Their leaves are quite large compared to the stem and grow out in a rosette around the stem (Figure 8).…
Conifers are the most diverse group of gymnosperms, with 629 species worldwide (Christenhusz and Byng, 2016). A large number of conifer species are native to the Northern Hemisphere where they are an important part of native ecosystems, providing forest structure…
Gymnosperms produce seeds (Figure ) and, together with flowering plants, constitute the seed plants. Although gymnosperms do not produce flowers and fruits, they still have embryos enclosed in a protective barrier or seed coat. This neat little package called a seed is an…
There are about 10,560 species of living ferns worldwide (PPG I, 2016). Hawai‘i has approximately 188 species with 111 of them being endemic and 35 indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands. Additionally, 40 species of introduced ferns have become naturalized (Ranker et…
There are approximately 1,300 species of lycophytes worldwide (Christenhusz and Byng, 2016) and they can be found in arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. In Hawai‘i, there are 17 native species and varieties and at least 4 introduced species that have…