Organisms

The development of soils can be significantly affected by vegetation, animal inhabitants, and human populations. Any array of contiguous soils influenced by local flora and fauna is termed a biosequence. To return to the climosequence along the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges discussed above, the vegetation observed along this narrow foothill region varies from shrubs in the dry south to needle-leaved trees in the humid north, with extensive grasslands in between. In the middle of the precipitation range, transition zones occur in which small groves of needle-leaved trees are interspersed with grassland patches in an apparently random manner. These plant populations represent local flora largely selected by climate. The properties of the soils underlying these plants, however, exhibit differences that do not arise from climate, topography, or parent material but are an effect of the differing plant species. The soils under trees, for instance, are much more acidic and contain much less humus than those under grass, and nitrogen content is considerably greater in the grassland soil. These properties come directly from the type of litter produced by the two different kinds of vegetation.

An opportunity to examine biosequences is often presented by relatively young soils formed from an alluvial parent material. Soils of this kind lying beneath shrubs may be richer in humus and plant nutrients than similar soils found beneath needle-leaved trees. This variation results from differences in the cyclic processes of plant growth, litter production, and litter decay. Organic matter decomposers will feed on stored material in soil if litter production is low, whereas high litter production will permit soil stocks of organic matter to increase, leading to humus-rich A horizons as opposed to the leached E horizons found in soils that form under humid climatic conditions.

Human beings are also part of the biological influx that influences soil formation. Human influence can be as severe as wholesale removal or burial (by urbanization) of an entire soil profile, or it can be as subtle as a gradual modification of organic matter by agriculture or of soil structure by irrigation. The chemical and physical properties of soils critical to the growth of crops often are affected significantly by cultural practices. Among the problems created for agriculture by cultural practices themselves are loss of arable land, erosion, the buildup of salinity, and the depletion of organic matter.